Everything about Berbers totally explained
Berbers are the indigenous
peoples of
North Africa west of the
Nile Valley. They are discontinuously distributed from the Atlantic to the
Siwa oasis, in
Egypt, and from the
Mediterranean to the
Niger River. They speak various
Berber languages, which together form a branch of the
Afroasiatic language family. Between fourteen and twenty-five million Berber speakers live within this region, most densely in
Morocco and becoming generally scarcer eastward through the rest of the
Maghreb and beyond.
Many Berbers call themselves some variant of the word
Imazighen (singular
Amazigh), meaning "free men". This is common in Morocco, but elsewhere within the Berber homeland a local, more particular term, such as
Kabyle or
Chaoui, is more often used instead. Historically Berbers have been variously known, for instance as
Libyans by the
ancient Greeks, as
Numidians and
Mauri by the
Romans, and as
Moors by medieval and early modern Europeans. The modern English term is borrowed from Arabic, but the deeper
etymology of "Berber" isn't certain. (See also:
Berber (Etymology).)
The best known of them were the Roman author
Apuleius, the Roman emperor
Septimius Severus, and
St. Augustine, whose mother was a Berber.
Berber people in Maghreb
During the pre-Roman era, several successive Independent States (
Massaesyles,
Massyles,
Moors ... etc) before the king
Massinissa unifing the
Numidia .
According to historians of the Middle Ages, the Berbers are divided into two branches, two are from their ancestor Mazigh. In sum, the two branches Botr and Barnès are also divided into tribes. each Maghreb region is made up of several tribes. The large Berber tribes or peoples are
Sanhadja,
Houaras,
Zenata,
Masmouda,
Kutama,
Awarba,
Berghwata ... etc. Each tribe is divided into sub tribes. All these tribes have independence and territorial decisions.
Several Berber dynasties have emerged during the Middle Ages to the Maghreb, Sudan, in Andalusia, Italy, in Mali, Niger, Senegal, Egypt ... etc.. Ibn Khaldoun is a table summarizing the Maghreb dynasties whose Berber Dynasties:
Zirid,
Banu Ifran,
Maghrawa,
Almoravid,
Hammadid,
Almohad,
Merinid,
Abdalwadid,
Wattasid,
Meknassa,,,... Hafsides dynasties.
The
Almohads were able to unify the Maghreb. And the Berbers of the Middle Ages have contributed to the Arabization of the Maghreb, which is a historical fact
History
The Berbers have lived in North Africa between western Egypt and the Atlantic Ocean for as far back as records of the area go. The earliest inhabitants of the region are found on the rock art across the Sahara. References to them also occur frequently in
ancient Egyptian, Greek, and Roman sources. Berber groups are first mentioned in writing by the
ancient Egyptians during the
Predynastic Period, and during the
New Kingdom the Egyptians later fought against the
Meshwesh and
Libu tribes on their western borders. From about 945 BC the Egyptians were ruled by Meshwesh immigrants who founded the
Twenty-second Dynasty under
Shoshenq I, beginning a long period of Berber rule in Egypt. They long remained the main population of the Western Desert—the
Byzantine chroniclers often complained of the
Mazikes (Amazigh) raiding outlying monasteries there.
For many centuries the Berbers inhabited the coast of North Africa from Egypt to the Atlantic Ocean. Over time, the coastal regions of North Africa saw a long parade of invaders and colonists including
Phoenicians (who founded
Carthage),
Greeks (mainly in
Cyrene, Libya),
Romans,
Vandals and
Alans,
Byzantines,
Arabs,
Ottomans, and the
French and
Spanish. Most if not all of these invaders have left some imprint upon the modern Berbers as have slaves brought from throughout Europe (some estimates place the number of Europeans brought to North Africa during the Ottoman period as high as 1.25 million)
(External Link
). Interactions with neighboring Sudanic empires, sub-Saharan Africans, and nomads from East Africa also left impressions upon the Berber peoples.
In historical times, the Berbers expanded south into the
Sahara (displacing earlier populations such as the
Azer and
Bafour), and have in turn been mainly culturally assimilated in much of North Africa by
Arabs, particularly following the incursion of the
Banu Hilal in the 11th century.
The areas of North Africa which retained the Berber language and traditions have, in general, been those least exposed to foreign rule—in particular, the highlands of Kabylie and Morocco, most of which even in Roman and Ottoman times remained largely independent, and where the Phoenicians never even penetrated far beyond the coast. However, even these areas have been affected by some of the many invasions of North Africa, most recently including the
French. Another source of foreign influence, particularly from across the Sahara, where the
trans-Saharan slave trade was operated by the Berbers and Arabs.
Berbers and the Islamic conquest
Unlike the conquests of previous religions and cultures, the coming of
Islam, which was spread by
Arabs, was to have pervasive and long-lasting effects on the
Maghreb. The new faith, in its various forms, would penetrate nearly all segments of society, bringing with it armies, learned men, and fervent mystics, and in large part replacing tribal practices and loyalties with new social norms and political idioms.
Nonetheless, the Islamization and Arabization of the region were complicated and lengthy processes. Whereas nomadic Berbers were quick to convert and assist the Arab conquerors, not until the twelfth century, under the Almohad Dynasty, did the
Christian and
Jewish communities become totally marginalized.
The first Arab military expeditions into the Maghrib, between 642 and 669, resulted in the spread of Islam. These early forays from a base in
Egypt occurred under local initiative rather than under orders from the central caliphate. When the seat of the caliphate moved from Medina to Damascus, however, the
Umayyads (a Muslim dynasty ruling from 661 to 750) recognized that the strategic necessity of dominating the Mediterranean dictated a concerted military effort on the North African front. In 670, therefore, an Arab army under
Uqba ibn Nafi established the town of
Qayrawan about 160 kilometers south of present-day
Tunis and used it as a base for further operations.
Abu al Muhajir Dinar, Uqba's successor, pushed westward into Algeria and eventually worked out a modus vivendi with
Kusaila, the ruler of an extensive confederation of Christian Berbers. Kusaila, who had been based in
Tilimsan (Tlemcen), became a Muslim and moved his headquarters to Takirwan, near Al Qayrawan.
This harmony was short-lived, however. Arab and Berber forces controlled the region in turn until 697. By 711, Umayyad forces helped by Berber converts to Islam had conquered all of North Africa. Governors appointed by the Umayyad caliphs ruled from
Kairouan, capital the new wilaya (province) of Ifriqiya, which covered
Tripolitania (the western part of present-day Libya),
Tunisia, and eastern Algeria.
However, the spread of Islam among the Berbers didn't guarantee their support for the Arab-dominated caliphate. The ruling Arabs alienated the Berbers by taxing them heavily; treating converts as second-class Muslims; and, at worst, by enslaving them. As a result, widespread opposition took the form of open revolt in 739-40 under the banner of Kharijite Islam. The Kharijites objected to Ali, the fourth caliph, making peace with the Umayyads in 657 and left Ali's camp (khariji means "those who leave"). The Kharijites had been fighting
Umayyad rule in the East, and many Berbers were attracted by the sect's egalitarian precepts. For example, according to
Kharijism, any suitable Muslim candidate could be elected caliph without regard to race, station, or descent from the Prophet
Muhammad.
After the revolt, Kharijites established a number of theocratic tribal kingdoms, most of which had short and troubled histories. Others, however, like
Sijilmasa and
Tilimsan, which straddled the principal trade routes, proved more viable and prospered. In 750, the Abbasids, who succeeded the Umayyads as Muslim rulers, moved the caliphate to Baghdad and reestablished caliphal authority in Ifriqiya, appointing
Ibrahim ibn al Aghlab as governor in
Kairouan. Although nominally serving at the caliph's pleasure, Al Aghlab and his successors, the
Aghlabids, ruled independently until 909, presiding over a court that became a center for learning and culture.
Just to the east of
Aghlabid lands,
Abd ar Rahman ibn Rustam ruled most of the central Maghrib from
Tahert, southwest of
Algiers. The rulers of the
Rustamid imamate, which lasted from 761 to 909, each an
Ibadi Kharijite imam, were elected by leading citizens. The imams gained a reputation for honesty, piety, and justice. The court at
Tahert was noted for its support of scholarship in mathematics, astronomy, and astrology, as well as theology and law. The
Rustamid imams, however, failed, by choice or by neglect, to organize a reliable standing army. This important factor, accompanied by the dynasty's eventual collapse into decadence, opened the way for Tahert's demise under the assault of the
Fatimids.
The
Muslims who entered
Iberia in 711 were mainly Berbers, and were led by a Berber,
Tariq ibn Ziyad, though under the suzerainty of the Arab
Caliph of
Damascus Abd al-Malik and his North African Viceroy,
Musa ibn Nusayr. A second mixed army of
Arabs and Berbers came in 712 under Ibn Nusayr himself. They supposedly they helped the
Umayyad caliph
Abd ar-Rahman I in
Al-Andalus, because his mother was a Berber. During the
Taifa era, the petty kings came from a variety of ethnic groups; some-- for instance the
Zirid kings of
Granada--were of Berber origin. The Taifa period ended when a Berber dynasty--the
Almoravids from modern-day
Western Sahara and
Mauritania--took over
Al-Andalus; they were succeeded by the
Almohad dynasty from
Morocco, during which time al-Andalus flourished.
In the power hierarchy, Berbers were situated between the Arabic aristocracy and the
Muladi populace. Ethnic rivalry was one of the most important factors driving Andalusi politics.
After the fall of the Caliphate, the taifa kingdoms of
Toledo,
Badajoz,
Málaga and Granada had Berber rulers.
Arabization of Northwest Africa
Before the 9th century, most of Northwest Africa was a Berber-speaking Muslim area. The process of Arabization only became a major factor with the arrival of the
Banu Hilal, a tribe sent by the
Fatimids of Egypt to punish the Berber
Zirid dynasty for having abandoned
Shiism. The Banu Hilal reduced the Zirids to a few coastal towns, and took over much of the plains; their influx was a major factor in the Arabization of the region, and in the spread of nomadism in areas where agriculture had previously been dominant.
Soon after independence, the countries of North Africa established
Arabic as their
official language, replacing French (except in Libya), although the shift from French to Arabic for official purposes continues even to this day. As a result, most Berbers had to study and know Arabic, and had no opportunities to use their
mother tongue at school or university. This may have accelerated the existing process of Arabization of Berbers, especially in already bilingual areas, such as among the
Chaouis.
Berberism had its roots before the independence of these countries, but was limited to some Berber elite. It only began to gain success when North African states replaced the colonial language with Arabic and identified exclusively as Arab nations, downplaying or ignoring the existence and the cultural specificity of Berbers. However, its distribution remains highly uneven. In response to its demands, Morocco and Algeria have both modified their policies, with Algeria redefining itself constitutionally as an "Arab, Berber, Muslim nation".
Currently, Berber is a "national" language in Algeria and is taught in some Berber speaking areas as a non-compulsory language. In Morocco, Berber has no official status, but is now taught as a compulsory language regardless of the area or the ethnicity.
Berbers are sometimes not discriminated against based on their ethnicity or mother tongue. As long as they share the reigning ideology, they can reach high positions in the social hierarchy; good examples are the former president of Algeria,
Liamine Zeroual, and the current prime minister of Morocco,
Driss Jettou. In Algeria, furthermore,
Chaoui Berbers are over-represented in the Army for historical reasons.
Berberists who openly show their political orientations rarely reach high hierarchical positions. However,
Khalida Toumi, a feminist and Berberist militant, has been nominated as head of the Ministry of Communication in Algeria.
Modern-day Berbers
The Berbers live mainly in
Morocco (between 90% of the population) and in
Algeria (about 60% of the population), as well as
Libya and
Tunisia, though exact statistics are unavailable
(External Link); see
Berber languages. Most
North Africans who consider themselves
Arab also have mainly Berber ancestry
(External Link). Prominent Berber groups include the
Kabyles of northern Algeria, who number approximately 4 million and have kept, to a large degree, their original language and culture; and the
Chleuh (francophone plural of Arabic "Shalh" and
Tashelhiyt "ašəlḥi") of south Morocco, numbering about 8 million. Other groups include the
Riffians of north Morocco, the
Chaouia of Algeria, and the
Tuareg of the
Sahara. There are approximately 2.2 million Berber immigrants in
Europe, especially the
Riffians and the
Kabyles in the
Netherlands and
France. Some proportion of the inhabitants of the
Canary Islands are descended from the aboriginal
Guanches--usually considered to have been Berber--among whom a few Canary Islander customs, such as the eating of
gofio, originated.
Although stereotyped in the West as nomads, most Berbers were in fact traditionally farmers, living in the mountains relatively close to the Mediterranean coast, or oasis dwellers; the
Tuareg and
Zenaga of the southern
Sahara, however, were nomadic. Some groups, such as the
Chaouis, practiced
transhumance.
Political tensions have arisen between some Berber groups (especially the
Kabyle) and North African governments over the past few decades, partly over linguistic and cultural issues; for instance, in
Morocco, giving children Berber names was banned.
Origin
Various disciplines shed light on the origin of the Berbers.
Archaeology
The
Neolithic Capsian culture appeared in North Africa around 9,500 BC and lasted until possibly 2700 BC. Linguists and population geneticists alike have identified this culture as a probable period for the spread of an
Afro-Asiatic language (ancestral to the modern Berber languages) to the area. The origins of the Capsian culture, however, are archeologically unclear. Some have regarded this culture's population as simply a continuation of the earlier
Mesolithic Ibero-Maurusian culture, which appeared around ~22,000 BC, while others argue for a population change; the former view seems to be supported by dental evidence.
(External Link)
Physical Anthropology
"At best we can define Berbers as
Mediterranean. In terms of physical anthropology they're more closely related to
Egyptians,
Sicilians and
Spaniards than to
Nigerians,
Saudi Arabians, or
Ethiopians... .".
There are also theories mixed with observations by acknowledged racists, now discredited by the scientific community, although once popular with the like-minded during the Nazi era, and earlier, which speculate about the Berber people of North Africa.
Genetic evidence
In general, genetic evidence appears to indicate that most North Africans (whether they consider themselves Berber or
Arab) are predominantly of Berber origin and that populations ancestral to the Berbers have been in the area since the
Upper Paleolithic era. Berbers appear to be largely descended from a group or groups of people who expanded west from an eastern origin, along the southern rim of the
Mediterranean sea, beginning perhaps as much as 50 000 years ago. Significant proportions of both the Berber and
Arabized Berber gene pools also derive from more recent
migration of various groups who have left their genetic footprints to varying degrees throughout the region.
Y-chromosome DNA
Y chromosomes are passed exclusively through the paternal line.
Bosch et al. (2001), found little genetic distinction between Arabic-speaking and Berber-speaking populations in North Africa, which they take to support the interpretation of the
Arabization and
Islamization of northwestern Africa, starting with word-borrowing during the 7th century A.D. and through State Arabic Language Officialisation post independence in 1962, as cultural phenomena without extensive genetic replacement. According to this study the historical origins of the NW African
Y-chromosome pool may be summarized as follows: 75%
E1b1b (M78, M35, and M81) from the
Upper Paleolithic, 13%
J (J1-M267 and J2-M172) from the
Neolithic, 4% historic European gene flow and 8% recent
sub-Saharan African. They identify the "75% NW African Upper Paleolithic" E1b1b component as "an Upper Paleolithic colonization that probably had its origin in Eastern Africa", which further studies have narrowed down specifically to the
Horn of Africa, and which is supported by other studies: "E3b originated in sub-saharan Africa and spread to the Near East and North Africa at the end of the Pleistocene". The North-west African population's 75% E1b1b Y chromosome genetic contribution from the Horn of Africa contrasted with a 78% contribution to the Iberian population from western Asia, suggests that the northern rim of the Mediterranean with the
Strait of Gibraltar acted as a strong, albeit incomplete, barrier. However this study only analysed a small sample of Moroccan Y lineages.
A more recent and thorough study by
Arredi et al. (2004) which analyzed five additional populations (Algerians and Tunisians) concludes that the North African pattern of Y-chromosomal variation (including both
E1b1b and
J haplogroups) is largely of Neolithic origin, which suggests that the Neolithic transition in this part of the world was accompanied by demic diffusion of Afro-Asiatic–speaking pastoralists from the Middle East. This Neolithic origin was later confirmed by
Myles et al. (2005) which suggest that "suggest that contemporary Berber populations possess the genetic signature of a past migration of pastoralists from the Middle East".
Cruciani et al. (2004) note that the E-M81 (E1b1b1b, formerly E3b1b, E3b2) haplogroup on the Y-chromosome, colloquially known as the "Berber marker", correlates closely with Berber populations.
Nebel et al. (2002) of the
Hebrew University argue that J1-M267 rather reflects "recent gene flow caused by the migration of
Arabian tribes in the first millennium of the Common Era(700-800 A.D)." According to Nebel, the indigenous population of the Maghrib, the Berbers, have always been a composite people. After the 8th century CE, a process of Arabization affected the bulk of the Berbers, while the Arab-Islamic culture and population absorbed local elements as well. Under the unifying framework of Islam, on the one hand, and as a result of the Arab settlement, on the other, a fusion took place that resulted in a new ethnocultural entity all over the Maghrib. Another study on Haplogroup J (Semino et al. 2004) agrees with Nebel et al.'s suggestion that J1-M267 may have spread to North Africa in historic times (as identified by the motif YCAIIa22-YCAIIb22; Algerians 35.0%, Tunisians 30.1%), which they assume to be a marker of the Arab expansion in the early medieval period.. This theory is disputed by
Arredi et al. 2004, who argue like Bosch et al. 2001 that the J1-M267 haplogroup (formerly H71) and North African Y-chromosomal diversity indicate a
Neolithic-era "demic diffusion of
Afro-Asiatic-speaking pastoralists from the Middle East."
Mitochondrial DNA
mtDNA, by contrast, is inherited only from the mother.
According to
Macaulay et al. 1999, "one-third of
Mozabite Berber mtDNAs have a Near Eastern ancestry, probably having arrived in North Africa ∼50,000 years ago, and one-eighth have an origin in sub-Saharan Africa. Europe appears to be the source of many of the remaining sequences, with the rest having arisen either in Europe or in the Near East." [Maca-Meyeret al. 2003] analyze the "autochthonous North African lineage U6" in mtDNA, concluding that:
The most probable origin of the proto-U6 lineage was the Near East. Around 30,000 years ago it spread to North Africa where it represents a signature of regional continuity. Subgroup U6a reflects the first African expansion from the Maghreb returning to the east in Paleolithic times. Derivative clade U6a1 signals a posterior movement from East Africa back to the Maghreb and the Near East. This migration coincides with the probable Afroasiatic linguistic expansion.
A genetic study by
Fadhlaoui-Zid et al. 2004 argues concerning certain exclusively North African haplotypes that "expansion of this group of lineages took place around 10,500 years ago in North Africa, and spread to neighbouring population", and apparently that a specific Northwestern African haplotype, U6, probably originated in the Near East 30,000 years ago but hasn't been highly preserved and accounts for 6-8% in
southern Moroccan Berbers, 18% in
Kabyles and 28% in Mozabites. Rando et al. 1998 (as cited by
(External Link)) "detected female-mediated gene flow from sub-Saharan Africa to NW Africa" amounting to as much as 21.5% of the mtDNA sequences in a sample of NW African populations; the amount varied from 82% (
Tuaregs) to 4% (
Rifains). This north-south gradient in the sub-Saharan contribution to the gene pool is supported by
Esteban et al. Nevertheless, individual Berber communities display a considerably high mtDNA heterogeneity among them. The Berbers of Jerba Island, located in South Eastern Tunisia, display an 87%
Eurasian contribution with no U6 haplotypes
(External Link), while the Kesra of Tunisia, for example, display a much higher proportion of typical sub-Saharan mtDNA haplotypes (49%, including 4.2% of M1 haplogroup)
Cherni L, et al., as compared to the Zriba (8%). According to the article, "The North African patchy mtDNA landscape has no parallel in other regions of the world and increasing the number of sampled populations hasn't been accompanied by any substantial increase in our understanding of its phylogeography. Available data up to now rely on sampling small, scattered populations, although they're carefully characterized in terms of their ethnic, linguistic, and historical backgrounds. It is therefore doubtful that this picture truly represents the complex historical demography of the region rather than being just the result of the type of samplings performed so far." Additionally, recent studies have discovered a close mitochondrial link between Berbers and the
Saami of Scandinavia which confirms that the Franco-Cantabrian refuge area of southwestern Europe was the source of late-glacial expansions of hunter-gatherers that repopulated northern Europe after the Last Glacial Maximum and reveals a direct maternal link between those European hunter-gatherer populations and the Berbers.
(External Link)
(External Link)
Linguistic
The Berber languages form a branch of
Afro-Asiatic, and thus descended from the proto-Afro-Asiatic language; on the basis of
linguistic migration theory, this is most commonly believed by historical linguists (notably
Igor Diakonoff and
Christopher Ehret) to have originated in east Africa no earlier than 12,000 years ago, although
Alexander Militarev argues instead for an origin in the Middle East, a theory that has met little support. Ehret specifically suggests identifying the Capsian culture with speakers of languages ancestral to Berber and/or
Chadic, and sees the Capsian culture as having been brought there from the African coast of the
Red Sea. It is still disputed which branches of Afro-Asiatic are most closely related to Berber, but most linguists accept at least one of Semitic and Chadic as among its closest relatives within the family (see
Afro-Asiatic languages.)
The
Nobiin variety of
Nubian contains several Berber loanwords, according to Bechhaus-Gerst, suggesting a former geographical distribution extending further southeast than the present.
There are between 14 and 25 million speakers of Berber languages in
North Africa (see
population estimation), principally concentrated in
Morocco and
Algeria but with smaller communities as far east as
Egypt and as far south as
Burkina Faso.
Their languages, the
Berber languages, form a branch of the
Afroasiatic linguistic family comprising many closely related varieties, including
Tarifit,
Kabyle and
Tashelhiyt, with a total of roughly 35-40 million speakers. A frequently used generic name for all Berber languages is
Tamazight.
Ethnic groups
Religions and beliefs
Berbers are mostly
Sunni Muslim, while the
Mozabites of the Saharan
Mozabite Valley are mostly
Ibadite.
Important Berbers in Islamic history
Yusuf ibn Tashfin
(c. 1061 - 1106) was the Berber
Almoravid ruler in
North Africa and
Al-Andalus (
Morrish Iberia).
He took the title of
amir al-muslimin (
commander of the Muslims) after visiting the Caliph of Baghdad 'amir al-moumineen" ("commander of the faithful")and officially receiving his support. He was either a cousin or nephew of
Abu-Bakr Ibn-Umar, the founder of the Almoravid dynasty. He united all of the
Muslim dominions in the Iberian Peninsula (modern
Portugal and
Spain) to the
Kingdom of Morocco (circa 1090), after being called to the Al-Andalus by the
Emir of
Seville.
Yusuf bin Tashfin is the founder of the famous Moroccan city
Marrakech (in Berber
Murakush, corrupted to
Morocco in English). He himself chose the place where it was built in 1070 and later made it the capital of his Empire. Until then the Almoravids had been desert nomads, but the new capital marked their settling into a more urban way of life.
Abu Abd Allah Muhammad Ibn Tumart
(c. 1080 - c. 1130), was a Berber
religious teacher and leader from the
Masmuda tribe who spiritually founded the
Almohad dynasty. He is also known as El-
Mahdi (المهدي) in reference to his prophesied redeeming. In 1125 he began open revolt against
Almoravid rule.
The name "Ibn Tumart" comes from the
Berber language and means "son of the earth."
(d. 720), known in Spanish history and legend as
Taric el Tuerto (Taric the one-eyed), was a Berber
Muslim and
Umayyad general who led the conquest of
Visigothic Hispania in 711. He is considered to be one of the most important military commanders in Spanish history. He was initially the deputy of
Musa ibn Nusair in North Africa, and was sent by his superior to launch the first thrust of an invasion of the
Iberian peninsula. Some claim that he was invited to intervene by the heirs of the
Visigothic King,
Wittiza, in the Visigothic civil war.
On
April 29,
711, the armies of Tariq landed at
Gibraltar (the name
Gibraltar is derived from the
Arabic name
Jabal Tariq, which means
mountain of Tariq, or the more obvious
Gibr Al-Tariq, meaning
rock of Tariq). Upon landing, Tariq is said to have burned his ships then made the following speech, well-known in the Muslim world, to his soldiers:
» أيّها الناس، أين المفر؟ البحر من ورائكم، والعدوّ أمامكم، وليس لكم والله إلا الصدق والصبر...
O People ! There is nowhere to run away! The sea is behind you, and the enemy in front of you: There is nothing for you, by God, except only sincerity and patience. (as recounted by
al-Maqqari).
Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Battuta
(born
February 24,
1304; year of death uncertain, possibly 1368 or 1377) was a Berber
Sunni Islamic scholar and
jurisprudent from the
Maliki Madhhab (a school of
Fiqh, or Sunni Islamic law), and at times a
Qadi or judge. However, he's best known as a traveler and
explorer, whose account documents his travels and excursions over a period of almost thirty years, covering some 73,000 miles (117,000 km). These journeys covered almost the entirety of the known Islamic world, extending from present-day
West Africa to
Pakistan,
India, the
Maldives,
Sri Lanka,
Southeast Asia and
China, a distance readily surpassing that of his predecessor, near-contemporary
Marco Polo.
Abu Ya'qub Yusuf
(died on
July 29,
1184) was the second
Almohad caliph. He reigned from 1163 until 1184. He had the
Giralda in
Seville built.
Abu Yaqub al-Mustansir Yusuf
Caliph of Morocco from 1213 until his death. Son of the previous caliph,
Muhammad an-Nasir, Yusuf assumed the throne following his father's death, at the age of only 16 years.
Ziri ibn Manad
(d. 971), founder of the
Zirid dynasty in the
Maghreb.
Ziri ibn Manad was a clan leader of the Berber
Sanhaja tribe who, as an ally of the
Fatimids, defeated the rebellion of
Abu Yazid (943-947). His reward was the governorship of the western provinces, an area that roughly corresponds with modern
Algeria north of the
Sahara.
Muhammad ibn Ali Awzal or
al-Awzali was a
religious Berber
poet. He is considered the most important author of the
Tashelhiyt (southern
Morocco Berber language) literary tradition. He was born around 1670 in the village of al-Qasaba in the region of
Sous,
Morocco and died in 1748/9 (1162 of the
Egira).
From the tribe of
Jazulah which was settled in the
Sus area of
Morocco between the Atlantic Ocean and the Atlas Mountains. He is most famous for compiling the
Dala'il al-Khayrat, an extremely popular
Muslim prayer book.
Important Berbers in Christian history
Before adhering to Islam, most Berber groups were
Christians, and a number of Berber theologians were important figures in the development of
Western Christianity. In particular, the Berber
Donatus Magnus was the founder of a Christian group known as the
Donatists. The 4th century
Catholic (for example common or universal) Church viewed the Donatists as heretics and the dispute lead to a schism in the church dividing North African Christians. The Romano-Berber theologian known as
Augustine of Hippo (modern Chaoui city of
Annaba, Algeria), who is recognized as a
saint and a
Doctor of the Church by
Roman Catholicism and the
Anglican Communion, was an outspoken opponent of Donatism. Many believe that
Arius, another early Christian theologian who was deemed a heretic by the catholic Church, was of Libyan and Berber descent.
Berber Jews
Berber culture
Quotes
Famous Berbers
Further Information
Get more info on 'Berbers'.
|
External Link Exchanges
Do you know how hard it is to get a link from a large encyclopaedia? Well we're different and will prove it. To get a link from us just add the following HTML to your site on a relevant page:
<a href="http://berber_people.totallyexplained.com">Berber people Totally Explained</a>
Then simply click through this link from your web page. Our crawlers will verify your link, extract the title of your web page and instantly add a link back to it. If you like you can remove the words Totally Explained and embed the link in article text.
As long as your link remains in place, we'll keep our link to you right here. Please play fair - our crawlers are watching. Your site must be closely related to this one's topic. Any kind of spamming, dubious practises or removing the link will result in your link from us being dropped and, potentially, your whole site being banned. |
